Cobalt - Revision history

Florez4747: /* Cobalt Mines */

2023-07-24T00:37:04Z

Cobalt Mines

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:37, 24 July 2023
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	== Covid-19 ==		== Covid-19 ==
	<Blockquote>...As the pandemic wreaked havoc across the globe, its impact on the destitute people mining for cobalt remains largely unassessed. When industrial mines went into lockdown for extended periods during 2020 and 2021, demand for cobalt did not graciously hibernate. It only grew as people across the world relied more than ever on their rechargeable devices to continue working or attending school from home. The increased demand for cobalt pressured hundreds of thousands of Congolese peasants who could not survive without the dollar or two they earned each day to clamber into the ditches and tunnels, unprotected, to keep the cobalt flowing. COVID-19 spread rapidly in the artisanal mines of the Congo, where mask wearing and social distancing were impossible. The sick and dead infected by the disease were never counted, adding an unknown number to the industry’s bleak tally.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref></Blockquote>		<Blockquote>...As the pandemic wreaked havoc across the globe, its impact on the destitute people mining for cobalt remains largely unassessed. When industrial mines went into lockdown for extended periods during 2020 and 2021, demand for cobalt did not graciously hibernate. It only grew as people across the world relied more than ever on their rechargeable devices to continue working or attending school from home. The increased demand for cobalt pressured hundreds of thousands of Congolese peasants who could not survive without the dollar or two they earned each day to clamber into the ditches and tunnels, unprotected, to keep the cobalt flowing. COVID-19 spread rapidly in the artisanal mines of the Congo, where mask wearing and social distancing were impossible. The sick and dead infected by the disease were never counted, adding an unknown number to the industry’s bleak tally.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref></Blockquote>


			== Health Hazards ==
			<Blockquote>...So all these people are being exposed to toxic cobalt dust and particulates and ore every day. Birth defects are on the rise, cancers, thyroid disease, neurological ailments, respiratory ailments, skin rashes and dermatitis. But no one at the top of the chain is talking about good health practices and protective gear. You can live in that part of the Congo and have nothing to do with cobalt mining, but you’re still being poisoned every day. <br><br>

			And the ore sometimes has traces of radioactive uranium in it, which has very bleak consequences to the human body. When the industrial mines process the ore, they use sulfuric acid. They’re supposed to contain the effluence, the gas clouds, as they would in their own home countries, these foreign mining companies, but no one cares about the people of the Congo or the environment of the Congo. It all just wafts over the mining provinces. Every body of water, the air, the dirt, it’s all contaminated.<Ref>https://e360.yale.edu/features/siddharth-kara-cobalt-mining-labor-congo</Ref></Blockquote>

	= International Regulatory Coalitions =		= International Regulatory Coalitions =

Florez4747: /* Katanga */

2023-07-23T00:03:58Z

Katanga

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:03, 23 July 2023
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	= Katanga =		= Katanga =
	There is more Cobalt in the Katanga region of ~~the~~ Congo than the rest of the world combined.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref> These materials are vital to lithium-ion rechargeable batteries.		There is more Cobalt in the Katanga region of [[The Congo]] than the rest of the world combined.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref> These materials are vital to lithium-ion rechargeable batteries.
	<Blockquote>The region [Katange] is also brimming with other valuable metals, including copper, iron, zinc, tin, nickel, manganese, germanium, tantalum, tungsten, uranium, gold, silver, and lithium. The deposits were always there, resting dormant for eons before foreign economies made the dirt valuable. Industrial innovations sparked demand for one metal after another, and somehow they all happened to be in Katanga. The remainder of the Congo is similarly bursting with natural resources. Foreign powers have penetrated every inch of this nation to extract its rich supplies of ivory, palm oil, diamonds, timber, rubber … and to make slaves of its people. Few nations are blessed with a more diverse abundance of resource riches than the Congo. No country in the world has been more severely exploited.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref></Blockquote>		<Blockquote>The region [Katange] is also brimming with other valuable metals, including copper, iron, zinc, tin, nickel, manganese, germanium, tantalum, tungsten, uranium, gold, silver, and lithium. The deposits were always there, resting dormant for eons before foreign economies made the dirt valuable. Industrial innovations sparked demand for one metal after another, and somehow they all happened to be in Katanga. The remainder of the Congo is similarly bursting with natural resources. Foreign powers have penetrated every inch of this nation to extract its rich supplies of ivory, palm oil, diamonds, timber, rubber … and to make slaves of its people. Few nations are blessed with a more diverse abundance of resource riches than the Congo. No country in the world has been more severely exploited.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref></Blockquote>


	= Lithium Ion Batteries =		= Lithium Ion Batteries =

Florez4747: /* Cell Phones */

2023-07-22T23:35:34Z

Cell Phones

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:35, 22 July 2023
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	= Cell Phones =		= Cell Phones =
	<Blockquote>LCO batteries provide high energy density, which allows them to store more power per weight of battery. This quality makes them ideal for use in consumer electronic devices such as mobile phones, tablets, and laptops. The tradeoff is that LCO batteries have shorter life spans and deliver a lower amount of power, qualities that make them unsuitable for use in electric vehicles.</Blockquote>		<Blockquote>LCO batteries provide high energy density, which allows them to store more power per weight of battery. This quality makes them ideal for use in consumer electronic devices such as mobile phones, tablets, and laptops. The tradeoff is that LCO batteries have shorter life spans and deliver a lower amount of power, qualities that make them unsuitable for use in electric vehicles.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref></Blockquote>

	= Cobalt Mines =		= Cobalt Mines =

Florez4747: /* Cell Phones */

2023-07-22T23:35:17Z

Cell Phones

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:35, 22 July 2023
Line 54:		Line 54:
	In May 2023 -- a few months after Joe Rogan interviewed Siddharth Kara -- [[Tesla]] announced that it will conduct a third-party audit of its battery supply chain.<ref>https://www.tesla-mag.com/tesla-to-conduct-third-party-audit-of-its-battery-material-suppliers/</ref> [[Elon Musk]] used his platform, [[Twitter]], to claim he "will review the audit personally." He added: "If you drive a Tesla, you should be able to believe in it to your core."<ref>https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1659340198340067328</ref>		In May 2023 -- a few months after Joe Rogan interviewed Siddharth Kara -- [[Tesla]] announced that it will conduct a third-party audit of its battery supply chain.<ref>https://www.tesla-mag.com/tesla-to-conduct-third-party-audit-of-its-battery-material-suppliers/</ref> [[Elon Musk]] used his platform, [[Twitter]], to claim he "will review the audit personally." He added: "If you drive a Tesla, you should be able to believe in it to your core."<ref>https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1659340198340067328</ref>

	= Cell Phones =		= Cell Phones =
			<Blockquote>LCO batteries provide high energy density, which allows them to store more power per weight of battery. This quality makes them ideal for use in consumer electronic devices such as mobile phones, tablets, and laptops. The tradeoff is that LCO batteries have shorter life spans and deliver a lower amount of power, qualities that make them unsuitable for use in electric vehicles.</Blockquote>

	= Cobalt Mines =		= Cobalt Mines =

Florez4747: /* Electric Vehicles */

2023-07-22T19:58:25Z

Electric Vehicles

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:58, 22 July 2023
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	<Blockquote>The EV market ... is where cobalt demand has really exploded. The first rechargeable electric vehicle was invented in 1880s, but it was not until the early 1900s that electric vehicles were being produced on a commercial scale. By 1910, around 30 percent of vehicles in the United States were propelled by electric engines. Had the trend continued, we would all be living on a cleaner, cooler planet. Instead, internal combustion engines came to dominate the next century of the automobile industry. There are several developments cited for the shift to gasoline-powered vehicles. First, the U.S. government invested heavily to expand road infrastructure beginning with the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916. Driving across the nation required greater ranges than could be achieved by EV technology at the time. In addition, the discovery of large oil reserves in Texas, California, and Oklahoma made internal combustion–powered cars much cheaper to operate. ...<br><br>		<Blockquote>The EV market ... is where cobalt demand has really exploded. The first rechargeable electric vehicle was invented in 1880s, but it was not until the early 1900s that electric vehicles were being produced on a commercial scale. By 1910, around 30 percent of vehicles in the United States were propelled by electric engines. Had the trend continued, we would all be living on a cleaner, cooler planet. Instead, internal combustion engines came to dominate the next century of the automobile industry. There are several developments cited for the shift to gasoline-powered vehicles. First, the U.S. government invested heavily to expand road infrastructure beginning with the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916. Driving across the nation required greater ranges than could be achieved by EV technology at the time. In addition, the discovery of large oil reserves in Texas, California, and Oklahoma made internal combustion–powered cars much cheaper to operate. ...<br><br>

	In 2010, there were only 17,000 electric vehicles on the road in the entire world. By 2021, that number had skyrocketed to 16 million. Meeting the ambitions of the Paris Agreement would require at least 100 million total electric vehicles in use by 2030. An even more ambitious EV30@30 Campaign was launched in 2017 with the goal of accelerating the deployment of electric vehicles, targeting a 30 percent market share for electric vehicles sales by 2030. The EV30@30 target would require a global stock of 230 million EVs by 2030, a fourteen fold increase over 2021 numbers. EV sales could end up being even greater, as twenty-four nations pledged at COP26 to eliminate the sale of gas-powered vehicles entirely by 2040. Millions of tons of cobalt will be needed, which will continue to push hundreds of thousands of Congolese women, men, and children into hazardous pits and tunnels to help meet demand.		In 2010, there were only 17,000 electric vehicles on the road in the entire world. By 2021, that number had skyrocketed to 16 million. Meeting the ambitions of the Paris Agreement would require at least 100 million total electric vehicles in use by 2030. An even more ambitious EV30@30 Campaign was launched in 2017 with the goal of accelerating the deployment of electric vehicles, targeting a 30 percent market share for electric vehicles sales by 2030. The EV30@30 target would require a global stock of 230 million EVs by 2030, a fourteen fold increase over 2021 numbers. EV sales could end up being even greater, as twenty-four nations pledged at COP26 to eliminate the sale of gas-powered vehicles entirely by 2040. Millions of tons of cobalt will be needed, which will continue to push hundreds of thousands of Congolese women, men, and children into hazardous pits and tunnels to help meet demand.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref></Blockquote>


	=== Tesla ===		=== Tesla ===

Florez4747: /* Electric Vehicles */

2023-07-22T19:58:10Z

Electric Vehicles

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:58, 22 July 2023
Line 45:		Line 45:
	== Electric Vehicles ==		== Electric Vehicles ==
	[[Electric Vehicle]]		[[Electric Vehicle]]

			<Blockquote>The EV market ... is where cobalt demand has really exploded. The first rechargeable electric vehicle was invented in 1880s, but it was not until the early 1900s that electric vehicles were being produced on a commercial scale. By 1910, around 30 percent of vehicles in the United States were propelled by electric engines. Had the trend continued, we would all be living on a cleaner, cooler planet. Instead, internal combustion engines came to dominate the next century of the automobile industry. There are several developments cited for the shift to gasoline-powered vehicles. First, the U.S. government invested heavily to expand road infrastructure beginning with the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916. Driving across the nation required greater ranges than could be achieved by EV technology at the time. In addition, the discovery of large oil reserves in Texas, California, and Oklahoma made internal combustion–powered cars much cheaper to operate. ...<br><br>

			In 2010, there were only 17,000 electric vehicles on the road in the entire world. By 2021, that number had skyrocketed to 16 million. Meeting the ambitions of the Paris Agreement would require at least 100 million total electric vehicles in use by 2030. An even more ambitious EV30@30 Campaign was launched in 2017 with the goal of accelerating the deployment of electric vehicles, targeting a 30 percent market share for electric vehicles sales by 2030. The EV30@30 target would require a global stock of 230 million EVs by 2030, a fourteen fold increase over 2021 numbers. EV sales could end up being even greater, as twenty-four nations pledged at COP26 to eliminate the sale of gas-powered vehicles entirely by 2040. Millions of tons of cobalt will be needed, which will continue to push hundreds of thousands of Congolese women, men, and children into hazardous pits and tunnels to help meet demand.

	=== Tesla ===		=== Tesla ===

Florez4747 at 19:54, 22 July 2023

2023-07-22T19:54:59Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:54, 22 July 2023
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	I move closer to investigate, treading carefully into the boiling crowd. I catch sight of a body in the dirt. It is a child, lying motionless within a storm of dust and despair. I try to make out the features of his face, but they elude me. Around the lifeless body, the ocher gravel has been stained in dark shades of red, like burnt umber or rusted metal. Until this moment, I thought that the ground in the Congo took its vermillion hue from the copper in the dirt, but now I cannot help but wonder whether the earth here is red because of all the blood that has spilled upon it. <br><br>		I move closer to investigate, treading carefully into the boiling crowd. I catch sight of a body in the dirt. It is a child, lying motionless within a storm of dust and despair. I try to make out the features of his face, but they elude me. Around the lifeless body, the ocher gravel has been stained in dark shades of red, like burnt umber or rusted metal. Until this moment, I thought that the ground in the Congo took its vermillion hue from the copper in the dirt, but now I cannot help but wonder whether the earth here is red because of all the blood that has spilled upon it. <br><br>

	I inch toward the cordon to see the child more clearly. Tensions between the soldiers and villagers escalate to the brink of riot. A soldier shouts angrily and waves his gun at me. I’ve drifted too close and lingered too long. I take one final look toward the child. I can see his face now, locked in a terminal expression of dread. That is the lasting image I take from the Congo—the heart of Africa reduced to the bloodstained corpse of a child, who died solely because he was digging for cobalt.<Ref name = "Kara">Kara, S. (2023). Cobalt red: how the blood of the Congo powers our lives (First edition.). St. Martin's Press. ~~Page, 1-2~~</Ref></Blockquote>		I inch toward the cordon to see the child more clearly. Tensions between the soldiers and villagers escalate to the brink of riot. A soldier shouts angrily and waves his gun at me. I’ve drifted too close and lingered too long. I take one final look toward the child. I can see his face now, locked in a terminal expression of dread. That is the lasting image I take from the Congo—the heart of Africa reduced to the bloodstained corpse of a child, who died solely because he was digging for cobalt.<Ref name = "Kara">Kara, S. (2023). Cobalt red: how the blood of the Congo powers our lives (First edition.). St. Martin's Press.</Ref></Blockquote>

	= Summary =		= Summary =

Florez4747: /* The East African Rift */

2023-07-22T19:54:29Z

The East African Rift

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:54, 22 July 2023
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	<Blockquote>The East African Rift is a 6,500-kilometer fracture in the earth’s surface that stretches from Jordan to Mozambique; it is caused by three plates pulling apart from each other—the Nubian plate, the Somalian plate, and the Arabian plate. Beginning around 800 million years ago, tectonic activity in the rift caused ocean water to enter an enclosed basin in the Copper Belt region. Most of the ocean water evaporated, but some of the saline fluids circulated into the sediments within the basin and stripped metals from them, including copper and cobalt. At some point between 650 and 500 million years ago, the salt layers began to move upward due to tectonic action, forming salt diapirs—domed rock formations in which a core of rock moves upward by several kilometers to pierce the earth’s surface. A similar process took place along the Gulf Coast of the United States, which made numerous oil and gas fields accessible to drilling.<br><br>		<Blockquote>The East African Rift is a 6,500-kilometer fracture in the earth’s surface that stretches from Jordan to Mozambique; it is caused by three plates pulling apart from each other—the Nubian plate, the Somalian plate, and the Arabian plate. Beginning around 800 million years ago, tectonic activity in the rift caused ocean water to enter an enclosed basin in the Copper Belt region. Most of the ocean water evaporated, but some of the saline fluids circulated into the sediments within the basin and stripped metals from them, including copper and cobalt. At some point between 650 and 500 million years ago, the salt layers began to move upward due to tectonic action, forming salt diapirs—domed rock formations in which a core of rock moves upward by several kilometers to pierce the earth’s surface. A similar process took place along the Gulf Coast of the United States, which made numerous oil and gas fields accessible to drilling.<br><br>

	As a result of the ocean water deposits and subsequent tectonic action, copper-cobalt ores across the Copper Belt are found both at great depths and near the surface. At depths below the level of a fluctuating water table, the copper and cobalt are combined with sulfur in the mineral carrollite, which is the primary source of industrially mined cobalt in the Congo. Closer to the surface, water combines with sulfur to create sulfuric acid, causing ores to “rust.” This weathering turns a sulfide into an oxide. Oxidized cobalt forms cobalt hydroxide in the mineral heterogenite. According to Hitzman, “The cobalt-hydroxide ore bodies in Katanga are unique. They form blocks that can be tens of meters to several kilometers in length floating like raisins in a cake.” Artisanal miners dig tunnels up to sixty meters deep to find these “raisins” of heterogenite. One of the largest known deposits of cobalt raisins is beneath a neighborhood of Kolwezi called Kasulo, a madhouse of tunnel digging that is unlike any place on earth.</Blockquote>		As a result of the ocean water deposits and subsequent tectonic action, copper-cobalt ores across the Copper Belt are found both at great depths and near the surface. At depths below the level of a fluctuating water table, the copper and cobalt are combined with sulfur in the mineral carrollite, which is the primary source of industrially mined cobalt in the Congo. Closer to the surface, water combines with sulfur to create sulfuric acid, causing ores to “rust.” This weathering turns a sulfide into an oxide. Oxidized cobalt forms cobalt hydroxide in the mineral heterogenite. According to Hitzman, “The cobalt-hydroxide ore bodies in Katanga are unique. They form blocks that can be tens of meters to several kilometers in length floating like raisins in a cake.” Artisanal miners dig tunnels up to sixty meters deep to find these “raisins” of heterogenite. One of the largest known deposits of cobalt raisins is beneath a neighborhood of Kolwezi called Kasulo, a madhouse of tunnel digging that is unlike any place on earth.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref></Blockquote>

	= Katanga =		= Katanga =

Florez4747 at 19:54, 22 July 2023

2023-07-22T19:54:19Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:54, 22 July 2023
Line 35:		Line 35:
	There is more Cobalt in the Katanga region of the Congo than the rest of the world combined.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref> These materials are vital to lithium-ion rechargeable batteries.		There is more Cobalt in the Katanga region of the Congo than the rest of the world combined.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref> These materials are vital to lithium-ion rechargeable batteries.
	<Blockquote>The region [Katange] is also brimming with other valuable metals, including copper, iron, zinc, tin, nickel, manganese, germanium, tantalum, tungsten, uranium, gold, silver, and lithium. The deposits were always there, resting dormant for eons before foreign economies made the dirt valuable. Industrial innovations sparked demand for one metal after another, and somehow they all happened to be in Katanga. The remainder of the Congo is similarly bursting with natural resources. Foreign powers have penetrated every inch of this nation to extract its rich supplies of ivory, palm oil, diamonds, timber, rubber … and to make slaves of its people. Few nations are blessed with a more diverse abundance of resource riches than the Congo. No country in the world has been more severely exploited.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref></Blockquote>		<Blockquote>The region [Katange] is also brimming with other valuable metals, including copper, iron, zinc, tin, nickel, manganese, germanium, tantalum, tungsten, uranium, gold, silver, and lithium. The deposits were always there, resting dormant for eons before foreign economies made the dirt valuable. Industrial innovations sparked demand for one metal after another, and somehow they all happened to be in Katanga. The remainder of the Congo is similarly bursting with natural resources. Foreign powers have penetrated every inch of this nation to extract its rich supplies of ivory, palm oil, diamonds, timber, rubber … and to make slaves of its people. Few nations are blessed with a more diverse abundance of resource riches than the Congo. No country in the world has been more severely exploited.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref></Blockquote>


			= Lithium Ion Batteries =
			<Blockquote>...Development of lithium-ion batteries dates to the 1970s at Exxon, during the time of the OPEC oil embargo, when alternate energy sources were being explored. Sony produced the first commercial-scale lithium-ion batteries in the early 1990s, at which time they were used primarily for small-scale consumer electronics. The lithium-ion battery market received its first upward demand shock with the smartphone and tablet revolutions. Apple introduced the iPhone in 2007, and Android smartphones were launched in 2008. Since that time, billions of smartphones have been sold, and each one of them requires a few grams of refined cobalt in their batteries. A similar eruption of gadgets took place in the tablet market. Apple launched the iPad in 2010, followed soon after by Samsung’s Galaxy Tab. Billions of tablets have since been sold, each of which requires up to thirty grams of cobalt in the battery. Add in laptops, e-scooters, e-bikes, and other rechargeable consumer electronic devices, and the aggregate amount of cobalt needed from all devices, save those with four or more tires, adds up to tens of thousands of tons each year.<Ref name = "Kara"></Ref></Blockquote>


	= "Renewable" Energy =		= "Renewable" Energy =

Florez4747: /* The East African Rift */

2023-07-22T19:31:22Z

The East African Rift

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:31, 22 July 2023
Line 30:		Line 30:
	<Blockquote>The East African Rift is a 6,500-kilometer fracture in the earth’s surface that stretches from Jordan to Mozambique; it is caused by three plates pulling apart from each other—the Nubian plate, the Somalian plate, and the Arabian plate. Beginning around 800 million years ago, tectonic activity in the rift caused ocean water to enter an enclosed basin in the Copper Belt region. Most of the ocean water evaporated, but some of the saline fluids circulated into the sediments within the basin and stripped metals from them, including copper and cobalt. At some point between 650 and 500 million years ago, the salt layers began to move upward due to tectonic action, forming salt diapirs—domed rock formations in which a core of rock moves upward by several kilometers to pierce the earth’s surface. A similar process took place along the Gulf Coast of the United States, which made numerous oil and gas fields accessible to drilling.<br><br>		<Blockquote>The East African Rift is a 6,500-kilometer fracture in the earth’s surface that stretches from Jordan to Mozambique; it is caused by three plates pulling apart from each other—the Nubian plate, the Somalian plate, and the Arabian plate. Beginning around 800 million years ago, tectonic activity in the rift caused ocean water to enter an enclosed basin in the Copper Belt region. Most of the ocean water evaporated, but some of the saline fluids circulated into the sediments within the basin and stripped metals from them, including copper and cobalt. At some point between 650 and 500 million years ago, the salt layers began to move upward due to tectonic action, forming salt diapirs—domed rock formations in which a core of rock moves upward by several kilometers to pierce the earth’s surface. A similar process took place along the Gulf Coast of the United States, which made numerous oil and gas fields accessible to drilling.<br><br>

	As a result of the ocean water deposits and subsequent tectonic action, copper-cobalt ores across the Copper Belt are found both at great depths and near the surface. At depths below the level of a fluctuating water table, the copper and cobalt are combined with sulfur in the mineral carrollite, which is the primary source of industrially mined cobalt in the Congo. Closer to the surface, water combines with sulfur to create sulfuric acid, causing ores to “rust.” This weathering turns a sulfide into an oxide. Oxidized cobalt forms cobalt hydroxide in the mineral heterogenite. According to Hitzman, “The cobalt-hydroxide ore bodies in Katanga are unique. They form blocks that can be tens of meters to several kilometers in length floating like raisins in a cake.” Artisanal miners dig tunnels up to sixty meters deep to find these “raisins” of heterogenite. One of the largest known deposits of cobalt raisins is beneath a neighborhood of Kolwezi called Kasulo, a madhouse of tunnel digging that is unlike any place on earth.<Blockquote>		As a result of the ocean water deposits and subsequent tectonic action, copper-cobalt ores across the Copper Belt are found both at great depths and near the surface. At depths below the level of a fluctuating water table, the copper and cobalt are combined with sulfur in the mineral carrollite, which is the primary source of industrially mined cobalt in the Congo. Closer to the surface, water combines with sulfur to create sulfuric acid, causing ores to “rust.” This weathering turns a sulfide into an oxide. Oxidized cobalt forms cobalt hydroxide in the mineral heterogenite. According to Hitzman, “The cobalt-hydroxide ore bodies in Katanga are unique. They form blocks that can be tens of meters to several kilometers in length floating like raisins in a cake.” Artisanal miners dig tunnels up to sixty meters deep to find these “raisins” of heterogenite. One of the largest known deposits of cobalt raisins is beneath a neighborhood of Kolwezi called Kasulo, a madhouse of tunnel digging that is unlike any place on earth.</Blockquote>

	= Katanga =		= Katanga =